13
“accepted the Royal Commission’s recommendation that, as
a further logical step [to ongoing reduction of levels of TEL],
the remaining lead in petrol should be phased out as soon
as practicable throughout the European Community. … The
Government believe that the Royal Commission’s target date of
1990 for the introduction of unleaded petrol throughout the EC
is a reasonable one to aimat – and improve upon if possible.”
(Department of the Environment 1983).
However, despite that, it actually took 17 more years before
leaded petrol was withdrawn from UK forecourts in 2000
(Lean 1999).
Change away from leaded petrol only commenced in 1987 with
the introduction of preferential tax rates for unleaded fuel. At
this point
“UK was one of the last industrialised countries to embrace
unleaded petrol”
(Millstone 2013).
Millstone also notes the cessation of systematic official
monitoring of lead levels in British children at the time of this
policy change such that
“the beneficial effects of phasing out leaded petrol in the UK
have been only fragmentarily documented.”
GLOBAL ELIMINATION OF LEAD IN PETROL
Whilst most industrialised countries have followed in
regulating against lead in petrol, it continued to be sold in
many developing or other countries. In view of its continuing
use, the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development
(WSSD) urged the need to:
“56. Reduce respiratory diseases and other health impacts
resulting fromair pollution, with particular attention towomen
and children, by:
… (b) Supporting the phasing out of lead in gasoline; …”
The UNEP-led Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles 3 was
launched after the WSSD and has continued to promote global
change to unleaded petrol and reduce or eliminate other
vehicular pollutants such as sulphur, developing a regulatory
tool kit 4 and other support tools for national use. As at January
2015, only Algeria,Yemen and Iraq still have leaded fuel available
alongside unleaded petrol, with Afghanistan, North Korea and
Myanmar removing it from sale in 2014.
Contemporary human
exposure to lead
Whilst great progress has been made to eliminate population
exposure to lead indevelopedcountries throughcomprehensive
regulations aimed at public and occupational health, very
large numbers remain exposed to significant levels of lead in
developing countries. In 2004, WHO (2010) estimated that 16%
of children worldwide have blood lead levels above 10 μg/dl.
Hernberg (2000) notes that these facts are linked:
“Unfortunately, part of the improved situation in the developed
countries is due to the fact that dangerous industries, such as
ship breaking, secondary lead smelting, [electronic wastes –
Huo et al. 2007] and manufacturing of storage batteries, have
been relocated to developing countries.”
How rapidly progress will be made will depend on the extent
of high level political support for public health objectives and
the transposition of this into national policies and regulations.
The history of initiatives to reduce population exposure to lead
through better regulation is one in which vested interests have
fought to maintain the status quo, including sometimes through
use of corrupt practices, seeing regulation and change as a threat
to their economic interests (Wilson 1983, Nriagu 1990, Hernberg
2000, Needleman 2000, EEA 2001, 2013, Michaels 2008, Wilson
and Horrocks 2008, Leigh et al. 2010, Millstone 2013, Needleman
and Gee 2013).
“We must not let history repeat itself by neglecting effective
prevention where it is most needed. It is a shame if action is
not taken when all the ingredients for successful prevention
exist.”
Hernberg (2000).
Lead poisoning of wildlife:
regulation of lead fishing
weights in the UK
At the same time as the debate on lead in petrol was occurring
in the UK (late 1970s), significant acute and chronic poisoning of
mute swans Cygnus olor was demonstrated following ingestion
of discarded lead fishing weights, especially on English lowland
rivers (NCC 1981, Sears and Hunt 1991). In some instances, this
was contributing to population-scale declines (Hardman and
Cooper 1980). Following a request from Ministers in March
3 UNEP Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles
4 UNEP PCFV regulatory tool kit
Regulation of some sources of lead poisoning