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ABSTRACT
Lead is a toxic metal to which humans in the UK were formerly exposed through a wide range of pathways such as
occupational exposure, lead plumbing, paints, petrol additives and foods. Controls on most of these sources have left
dietary lead as themain pathway of lead exposure in the UK. This paper shows that ammunition-derived lead, especially
from gamebird meat, is the predominant and significant cause of exposure to dietary lead in the small proportion of the
UK population who eat gamebird meat frequently. Using information from surveys of gamebird meat consumption by
the general population and of high-level game consumers who eat game at least once per week, we estimate minimum
and maximum numbers of people who eat game and numbers of these potentially at risk of a set of adverse health
outcomes. In the UK, at least one million people eat gamebirdmeat at least once per year and at least tens of thousands
of people from the shooting community are high-level consumers of wild-shot game. Children are likely to be the most
numerous group vulnerable to significant negative effects. We estimate that thousands of children in the UK per year
(probably in the range 4,000 - 48,000) could be at potential risk of incurring a one point reduction in IQ or more as a result
of current levels of exposure to ammunition-derived dietary lead. Numbers of adults at potential risk of incurring critical
health effects appear to be smaller.
Key words: human health, lead, game meat, gamebird meat, high-level consumer, diet survey, children, blood lead, IQ
INTRODUCTION
Lead is a toxic metal that has a wide range of effects on
the health and functioning of humans. There is no known
biochemical requirement for lead in humans and other
animals. Information on the adverse effects of lead on human
health has accumulated over time and indicates that there are
effects on most body systems, some of which are detectable
at low levels of blood lead (EFSA 2010). In this paper, we first
assess the degree to which humans in the UK are exposed
to dietary lead derived from spent ammunition. We then
consider the potential magnitude of effects of exposure to
ammunition-derived lead on health and functioning. Finally,
we make approximate estimates of the numbers of people in
the UK who may be at risk of negative health effects from the
ingestion of ammunition-derived lead.
Risks of health effects to humans in the UK
from ammunition-derived lead
Rhys E. Green 1,2† & Deborah J. Pain3
1 Conservation Science Group, University of Cambridge, Department of Zoology, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UK
2 Centre for Conservation Science, Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, The Lodge, Sandy, Bedfordshire SG19 2DL, UK
3 Wildfowl &Wetlands Trust, Slimbridge, Gloucestershire , GL2 7BT, UK
† Corresponding author email address: