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The sport angling and ammunition making industries have
already developed lead-free substitutes for use as sinkers,
gunshot for waterfowl and upland game shooting (Thomas
2009), clay target shooting (Thomas and Guitart 2013), and
game stalking with rifles (Thomas 2013). The progressive
legislation of various countries has resulted in varying degrees
of replacement of lead products (Mateo 2009). Most notably,
Denmark has prohibited importation, sale, possession and use
of lead shotgun ammunition and fishing gear since 1996. The
state of California requires lead-free rifle ammunition to be used
by hunters in Condor preservation zones under the Ridley-Tree
Condor Preservation Act of 2007, and lead-free ammunition will
be required throughout the entire state for all types of hunting
from 2019 under California AB7111. It is interesting to note that
no country has yet to ban the use of lead fishing weights, and
rifle and shotgun ammunition for both hunting and target use.
However, where non-toxic regulations have been introduced
and enforced, the result is marked reduction of lead poisoning
in wildlife, such as North American waterfowl (Anderson et al.
2000, Samuel and Bowers 2000, Stevenson et al. 2005). The
UK countries introduced regulations between 1999 and 2009
to prohibit the use of lead gunshot over wetlands and/or for
shooting wildfowl (Newth et al. 2012), as well as regulation to
prohibit use of sinkers (<28.4 g) in coarse angling in 1986.
However, despite lowering of exposure to lead sinkers (Sears
and Hunt 1991, Perrins et al. 2003), poor compliance with
Regulations restricting the use of lead gunshot, at least in
England where monitoring has taken place, has meant that
significant exposure still remains for waterbirds exposed to
lead shot (Newth et al. 2013, Cromie et al. 2010, 2015).
A“piece meal” approach to regulating the use of lead products
reflects the enormous political strengths of the angling,
hunting and shooting communities in many countries, rather
than the angling and ammunition makers’ abilities to make
lead substitutes (Scheuhammer and Thomas 2011). The
different sporting communities do not agree on the levels
of exposure and risk presented by their members’ activities,
and frequently voice various concerns about lead substitutes
(Miller et al. 2009, Haig et al. 2014, Epps 2014) regardless of
their perceived validity. This paper deals with, and contests,
two common concerns - the availability and effectiveness of
lead-free ammunition for hunting game with shotguns and
rifles in the UK.
1 ,0,6334949.story#axzz‌tsZdb2Ga
2Non-toxic shot is defined as any shot type that does not cause sickness and death when ingested by migratory birds
METHOD
Definition of terms used in this paper
Availability: The term “availability” has several relevant
components. Product availability refers to whether a given
product is made and distributed. Retail availability refers to
whether a given product is able to be purchased in a given
location, whether online, or over-the-counter in a retail store.
Economic availability refers to whether a given product is
available to the public at a competitive price, in this case, relative
to that of comparable lead ammunition.
Effectiveness: The term “effectiveness” refers to the ability
of the gunshot or bullet to kill animals quickly when used
competently. This assumes that the following considerations
are met:
- The shooter is competent in judging distances and can
present multiple shotgun shot or a bullet to the vital regions
of animals.
- For shotgun shooting, a minimum of five shot should be
delivered to the vital regions of the animal (see page 152-
164 in Garwood 1994).
- The choice of cartridge gauge, mass of shot and size of
shot is commensurate with delivering a minimum of five
shot deep into the vital regions of the animal at the distance
chosen for shooting.
- For rifle shooting, the calibre and mass of the bullet must
be adequate to penetrate the vital regions (brain, anterior
spinal column, heart, and anterior lung region) of the animal,
allowing optimal expansion of the bullet and creation of a
wide wound channel.
Toxicity: The term “non-toxic2” is used in reference to shotgun
ammunition, as defined by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
and is, here, used synonymously with the term “lead-free”. The
maximum allowable level of lead in gunshot under U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service criteria is 1% by mass (USFWS 1997).
Vernon G. Thomas